Non-invasive biomarkers for sperm retrieval in non-obstructive patients: a comprehensive review
Recent advancements in reproductive medicine have guided novel strategies for addressing male infertility, particularly in cases of non-obstructive azoospermia (NOA).Two prominent invasive interventions, namely testicular sperm extraction (TESE) and microdissection TESE (micro-TESE), have emerged as key techniques to retrieve gametes for assisted r